Cap. VIII
DE OFFICIIS DIVINIS IN NOCTIBUS

[Ms P, fol. 70v – Paulus Diaconus – 
Ps.-Basil: Ms K², fol. 168r; Ms E¹, fol. 81r; Ms E², fol. 112r]

Ch. 8
Concerning the Divine Office at Night

Translated by: Julian Hendrix

Apte et congrue B. Benedictus, postquam dixerat mortificationem interioris hominis et compositionem exterioris, h. e. consummationem scalae, nunc de officiis divinis subjungit, quia illud officium divinum est Deo acceptum, quod ab hujusmodi viris fit, i. e. qui in duodecimo humilitatis gradu consistunt, quia sicut propheta dicit: Non est digna laus in ore peccatoris. [cf. Sir 15:9]

After he had discussed the mortification of the interior man and the formation of the exterior man, that is, the accomplishment of the steps [of humility], blessed Benedict now properly and fittingly adds concerning the Divine Office, because that Divine Office is pleasing to God because it is done by such men, that is, who abide in the twelve grades of humilty, because just as the prophet says: Praise is not seemly in the mouth of a sinner. [cf. Sir 15:9]

Et iterum psalmista ait: Peccatori autem dixi: Quare tu enarras justitias meas et assumis testamentum meam per os tuum, tu vero odisti disciplinam et projecisti sermones meos post te? si videbas furem, simul currebas cum eo, et cum adulteris portionem tuam ponebas; os tuum abundavit nequitia, et lingua tua concinnavit dolum; sedens adversus fratrem tuum detrahebas, et adversus filium matris tuae ponebas scandalum. Haec fecisti, et tacui. [Ps 49:16-21]

And also the psalmist says: I, however, say to the sinner: why do you describe my justices and receive my covenant through your mouth [when] you truely hate discipline and have cast my words behind you? If you have seen a thief, you have run with him and you have spent your portion with adulterers. Your mouth has abounded with wickedness, and your tongue produces deceit. Sitting you spoke against your brother, and laid a scandal against your mother's son. You have done these things and I was silent. [Ps 49:16-21]

Et bene, cum dixit de officiis, subjunxit divinis, quia sunt et alia officia, quae non sunt divina. Ad separationem quippe aliorum temporum subjunxit in noctibus nam sunt; et alia officia diurna, i. e. quae inferius dicturus est.

And rightly he added divine when he said concerning the office, because there are other offices, which are not divine. Obviously he added at night to separate other times, for there are the other offices of the day, i.e., those which he will discuss below.

Officiorum vero, sicut Isidorus dicit, plurima genera esse noscuntur, sed praecipuum illud est, quod in sacris divinisque rebus habetur. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI. c. 19. 1]

But as Isidore says, there are many kinds of offices, but the chief one is that service which is held for holy and divine matters. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI. c. 19. 1; translation from Barney et al.]

Sed quare dicatur officium, B. Ambrosius in libris, quos De officiis, i. e. De moribus humanae vitae scripsit, dicit hoc modo: Officium ab efficiendo dictum putamus quasi 'efficium'; sed propter decorem sermonis una immutata littera 'officium' nuncupari, vel certe ut ea agas, [page 271] quae nulli officiant, sed prosint omnibus. [Ambrose, De officiis 1, c. 8.26, CCSL 15, p. 10]

But why is it called office? In his books, which he wrote On Offices, that is, On the Customs of Human Life, Blessed Ambrose speaks in this way: We think "office" [officium] is so called, as in "finished" [efficium], but on account of the elegance of words, with one letter changed it is called "office", or certainly for the purpose of conducting those matters [page 271] which harms no one but benefits all. [Ambrose, De officiis 1, c. 8.26, CCSL 15, p. 10]

Quare dicatur nox vel quid sit nox, Beda definit dicens hoc modo: Nox dicta, quod [inserted form PL: noceat aspectibus vel negotiis humanis, sive quod in ea fures latronesque nocendi aliis occasionem nanciscantur. Est autem nox absentia solis terrarum umbra conditi, donec ab occasu redeat ad exortum, juxta naturam ejus et poeta describens, inquit: Ruit oceano nox, Involvens umbra magna terramque polumque. [Vergil, Aeneid 2.250-251]

Why night is said or what night is, Bede defines it speaking in this way: Night is so called because it detracts from [noceat] human affairs or vision, or else because thieves and robbers find occasion therein to injure [nocendi] others. Night is the absence of the sun, when it is concealed by the earth's shadow from the time it sets until the time it rises again. The poet describes its nature accordingly: night sank into the ocean, wrapping Earth and pole in a mighty shadow. [Vergil, Aeneid 2.250-251]

Et Salomon sacris litteris expressit: Qui pascitur inter lilia donec aspiret dies, et inclinentur umbrae. Eleganti utique sensu decessionem noctis inclinationem appellans umbrarum.

And Solomon in his holy writings said 'Who feeds amongst the lilies until the day breaks and the shadows give way' [Ct 2.16-17], alluding to the departure of night, in an altogether elegant turn of phrase, as the giving way of the shadows.

Nam quoniam pro conditionibus plagarum, quibus solis cursus intenditur, et splendorem ejus a nobis objectio terrenae molis excludit, inumbratio illa, quae noctis natura est, ita erigitur, ut ad sidera usque videatur extendi, merito contraria vicissitudine, id est, lucis exortu umbras inclinari, noctem videlicet deprimi pellique signavit, quam videlicet umbram noctis ad aeris usque et aetheris confinium philosophi dicunt exaltari, et acuminatis instar pyramidum tenebris lunam, quae infima planetarum currit, aliquando contingit, atque obscurari, nullumque aliud sidus taliter eclipsim, id est, defectum sui luminis pati, eo quod circa fines telluris solis splendor undique diffusus, ea libere quae tellure procul absunt aspiciat, ideoque aetheris quae ultra lunam sunt spatia diurnae lucis plena semper efficiat, vel suo, videlicet, vel siderum radiata fulgore.

However, because the interposition of the earth's mass blocks the sun's splendour from us according to the location of the regions through which its path passes, that shadow, which is the very essence of night [quae noctis natura est], is projected so far upwards that it appears to reach to the stars. Appropriately, [Solomon] signified that by the opposite change, that is, the rising of the light, 'the shadows give way', that is, night is suppressed and driven down. Philosophers say that this shadow of night extends upwards to the frontier between air and ether, and that the moon, the lowest of planets, is occasionally touched and obscured by the shadow as it comes together into a point like a pyramid. No other star undergoes an eclipse, that is, the loss of its light, in this fashion, because the sunlight, diffused everywhere around the confines of the earth, shines without impediment on those [stars] which are at a great distance from the earth.

Et quemadmodum nocte caeca procul accensas faces intuens, circumposita quaeque loca eodem lumine perfundi non dubitas, tametsi, tenebris noctis obstantibus, non amplius quam solas facium flammas cernere praevaleas, ita, inquiunt, purissimum illud et proximum coelo inane, diffusis ubique siderum flammis, semper tucidum fit; sed praepeditis aere crassiore nostris obtutibus sidera quidem ipsa luce radiantia apparent, verum reddita ex eis illustratio non apparet.  

Therefore [the sun] makes the tracts of ether which are beyond the moon to be always full of daylight, either by his own brightness or by that which beams from the stars. If, on a dark night, you are positioned at a distance from some blazing torches, you see some of the surrounding area suffused with their light, although the darkness of night is all about, and all you can see are the separate flames of the torches themselves. By the same token, they say that the empty space which is purest and closest to heaven is always lit up by the light of the stars, scattered everywhere. But to our vision, impeded as it is by the thicker air, the stars themselves appear to be shining lights, while the brightness which they radiate is not obvious.

Lunam vero aiunt, cum infimas sui circuli apsidas plena petierit, nonnunquam umbra memorata fuscari, donec paulatim centrum terrae transgressa, rursus a sole cernatur; verum ne hoc omni plenilunio patiatur, latitudinem ei signiferi, quae XII partium est, diversamque apsidum altitudinem succurrere.

But they say that when the moon is full and seeks its lowest point, it sometimes is obscured by a visible shadow until, having removed itself a little bit from the center [i.e., plane] of the earth, it is again exposed to the sun. So that this does not happen at every full moon, [the moon's] orbit runs at variable altitudes through the width of the zodiac, which is 12 degrees [partes] wide.

Nam quia in umbra facienda tria simul concurrere necesse est, lucem, corpus, et obscuratum locum, et ubi lux corpori par est, ibi aequalis umbra jacitur, ubi lux corpore exilior, ibi umbra sine termino augescit, ubi lux corpore major, ibi umbra paulatim rarescendo deficit, argumentantur solem terra esse majorem, quamvis ob immensam longinquitatem modicus videatur, atque ideo noctis umbram quia sensim decrescat, priusquam ad aethera pertingat deficere.

For three things must occur together to make a shadow: light, a body, and a place on which the shadow is cast. And where light is equal [in magnitude] to the body, a shadow of constant [diameter] is thrown; where the light is smaller than the body, the shadow increases indefinitely; where the light is greater than the body, the shadow gradually diminishes and dies away. They maintain that the sun is larger than the Earth, though it seems small because it is so far away. Hence, because the shadow of night gradually decreases, it fades out before it reaches the ether.

Meminit hujus umbrae ac noctis et beatus Ambrosius in sexto Hexameron libro ita dicens: An non ille, id est, Moyses, putavit dicendum, quantum de spatio aeris occupat umbra terrae, cum sol recedit a nobis, diemque obducit, inferiora axis illuminans, et quemadmodum in regionem umbrae hujus incidens lunae globos eclipsim faciat? [Ambrose, Hexaemeron 6.2.8 (209.1-4)]

Blessed Ambrose calls to mind this shadow or night in the sixth book of the Hexaemeron in the following words: But he - that is, Moses - did not think it necessary to discuss how far earth's shadow extends into the air when the sun retreats from us and takes away the day, illuminating the lower pole, or how the moon, climbing into the region of [Earth's] shadow, is eclipsed. [Ambrose, Hexaemeron 6.2.8 (209.1-4)]

Est autem noctis umbra mortalibus ad requiem corporis data, ne operis avida continuato labore deficeret ac periret humanitas, et ut animantibus quibusdam, quae lucem solis ferre nequeunt, ipsis etiam bestiis quae praesentiam verentur humanam, discursandi ubique, ac victum quaeritandi copia suppeteret, juxta quod in Dei laudibus Psalmista decantat: Sol cognovit occasum suum; posuisti tenebras et facta est nox, in ipsa pertransibunt omnes bestiae sylvarum, etc.

The shadow of night was given to mortals for the body's repose lest mankind perish because of the unending, immoderate exertion of its work. It was given as well to certain animals who cannot bear the light of the sun, and likewise to those beasts who fear the presence of human beings, in order that they may have an opportunity to go about and seek their food. As the Psalmist sings in praise of God: 'The sun knew its setting; You set out the shadows and made the night, in which all the beasts of the wood go forth' [Ps 104:19-20 (103:19-20)], and so on.

Quam mira provisio Creatoris ita temperavit, ut ubi ob solis longinquitatem rigidior, ibi ad opera brevianda et fovenda sit membra prolixior, quia et hyeme quam aestate universo orbi longior, et in ipsa hyeme multo Scythis quam Afris est productior, sicut etiam aestate multo longior in Scythia quam in Africa dies flagrat.

How wonderful a forethought on the part of the Creator that balanced matters [temperavit] so that where [the climate] is harsher because of the distance of the sun, there the night is longer, in order that labor might be shortened and the limbs kept warm. For winter [nights] are longer than summer [nights] everywhere throughout the world, and much longer in Scythia than in Africa.

Nam si non tanto brevior quanto ardentior Lybiam dies ureret, totam nimirum jam dudum absumeret.

Likewise, the day shines much longer in summer in Scythia than in Africa, for were the day which scorches Libya not briefer in proportion as it is hotter, it would surely have consumed the whole land long ago.

Noctis sane partes sunt VII: crepusculum, vesperum, conticinium, intempestum, gallicinium, matutinum, diluculum. Crepusculum est dubia lux; nam creperum dubium dicimus: hoc est] inter tenebras et lucem. [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 7, PL 90, col. 322-325]

There are seven parts of a night: dusk, twilight, evening, the dead of night, cockcrow, early morning, and daybreak. Dusk [crepusculum] is uncertain light, for we say creperum for “uncertain.” [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 7, transl. Wallis, $$]

Vesper ab apparente ejusdem nominis stella occidentali vocatur, quae solem occiduum consequitur et tenebras sequentes praecedit, de qua poeta, i. e. Virgilius: Ante diem clauso vesper componit olympo. [Vergil, Aeneid 1, 374] [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 31.5]

Evening (vesperum) is named from the western star (i.e., Vesper), which follows the setting sun and precedes the oncoming darkness. Concerning which the poet Vergil says [cf. Aen. 1.374] “Sooner, as the heavens are closed up, does the evening star (Vesper) lay the day to rest.”[Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 31.5; translation from Barney et al.]

Vespertinum officium est in noctis initio vocatum, sicut diximus, ab stella vespere, quae surgit oriente nocte. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI, c. 19.2]

The office of Vespers takes place at the beginning of the night, just as we have said, and is named for the evening star Vesper, which rises when night falls. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI, c. 19.2; translation from Barney et al.]

Conticinium vero est, quando omnia contices sunt, i. e. silentes.

The 'evening' [conticinium] is the time when all things are silent, for to be silent is conticescere.

Intempestum est medium et inactuosum noctis tempus, quando agi nihil potest et omnia sopore quieta sunt; nam tempus per se non intelligitur, nisi per actus humanos; medium autem noctis actu caret. Ergo, intempesta, inactuosa quasi sine tempore, h. e. sine actu, per quem demonstratur tempus. Unde est: intempestive venisti.

The 'dead of night' [intempestum] is the middle and inactive time [tempus] of night when nothing can be done and all things are at rest in sleep, for time is not perceived on its own account, but only by way of human activities, and the middle of the night lacks activity. Therefore intempesta means "inactive," as if it were 'without time' [sine tempore], that is, without the activity by which time is perceived. Whence the expression "You have arrived 'at an untimely moment' [intempestive]."

Ergo 'intempesta' dicitur, quia caret tempore, i.e. actu.

Hence the dead of night is so called because it lacks time, that is, activity.

Gallicinium est, quando galli cantum levant; gallicinium enim dictum putamus propter gallos lucis praenuntios.

Cockcrow [gallicinium] is when the cocks [galli] lift up their song; we think cockcrow is so called from cocks, the heralds of light.

Matutinum est inter discessum tenebrarum et aurorae adventum et dictum matutinum, quod hoc tempore inchoante mane sit. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 31:8-12]

The 'early morning' [matutinum] falls between the passing of darkness and the arrival of dawn, and it is called matutinum because this is the time of the beginning of morning [mane] . [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 31:8-12; translation from Barney et al.]

Mane est lux matura et plena, nec jam crepusculum, et dictum 'mane' a mano; manum enim antiqui bonum dicebant. Quid enim melius luce?

In the morning the light is advanced and full, no longer twilight. It is called morning [mane] from the adjective 'good,' because the ancients used manus as a word for 'good' -- for what is better than light?

Alii 'mane' existimant vocari a manibus, quorum conversatio a luna ad terram est. Alii putant ab aere, quia manus, i. e. rarus atque perspicuus. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 30.14]

Others think that morning is named from the 'departed spirits' [Manes], whose abode is between the moon and the earth. Others think the name is from 'air,' because it is manus, that is, rarified and transparent. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 30.14; translation from Barney et al.]

em>Matutinum autem officium in lucis initio ab stella lucifero appellatum, quae oritur inchoante mane, quorum duorum temporum, i. e. vesperi et matutini significatione ostenditur, ut die ac nocte semper Deus laudetur. [Isidore, Etymologiae VI, c. 19.3] Unde autem matutinus dirivetur.

But the office of Matins occurs at the beginning of daylight, and is named after the star Lucifer, whoich rises when morning begins. By the token of these two times of day, that is, evening and morning, it is shown that God is to be praised always, day and night. [Isidore, Etymologiae VI, c. 19.3; translation Barney et al.] Whence, then, Matins is derived.

Priscianus dicit hoc modo: alia a temporibus, [ut] matutinus a matuta, quae significat auroram. [Priscian, Grammatica 2.10.52]

Priscian speaks in this way: Some things are named from the times, such as Matins from Matuta, who names the dawn. [Priscian, Institutiones Grammaticae 2.10.52]

Item Priscianus [page 272] dicit: A mane manuninae debueramus secundum regulam dicere, sed quia male sonat duplicata n littera, dicimus matutinae convertentes n litteram in t.

Priscian also [page 272] says: We ought to follow the rule in saying morning from manuninae but because repeating the letter n sounds bad, we say Matins [matutinae], changing the letter n into t.

Diluculum sicut Isidorus dicit, dicitur quasi jam incipiens parva diei lux, haec et aurora, quae solem praecedit. Est autem aurora diei clarescentis exordium et primus splendor aeris, qui graece 'eoos' dicitur, 'quam nos per derivationem auroram vocamus 'quasi' 'eororam.' Unde et illud: Laetus eois Eurus equis; [Vergil, Aeneid 2, 417] et: eoasque acies. [Vergil, Aeneid 1, 489] [Isidore, Etymologiae 5, c. 31:13-14]

Daybreak [diluculum], as Isidore says, is so called as if it were the little 'light of day' [diei lux] just now beginning. This is also called aurora, which comes before the sun. Thus aurora is the prelude of the day as it grows light and the first brightness of the air, which is called ἠώς [dawn] in Greek. By borrowing we name it aurora, as if it were eorora. Hence this verse [cf. Vergil, Aen. 2.417]: "And the East Wind rejoicing in its horses of dawn [Eois]. [Vergil, Aen. 1.489]: And the army from the east [Eous] . [Isidore, Etymologiae V, c. 31:13-14; translation Barney et al.]

Item Isidorus dicit: Nox a nocendo dicta, eo quod oculis noceat, quae idcirco lunae ac siderum lucem habet, ne indecora esset, et ut consolaretur omnes nocte operantes, et ut quibusdam animantibus, quae lucem solis ferre non possunt, ad sufficientiam temperaretur. Noctis autem et diei alternatio propter vicissitudinem dormiendi vigilandique effecta est, et ut operis diurni laborem noctis requies temperaret. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 5, c. 31.1-2].

Again Isidore says: Night [nox] is so called from harming [nocere], because it impairs the eyes. It has the light of the moon and stars, so as not to be without adornment, and so that it may comfort all those who work at night, and so that there is sufficient light for certain living creatures that cannot tolerate sunlight. Further, the alternation of night and day is made to provide the shift between sleeping and waking, so that the resting time of night may temper the effort of daily work. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 5, c. 31.1-2; translation Barney et al.]

Tempora anni sunt quatuor, sicut Beda dicit, quibus sol [inserted from PL: per diversa coeli spatia discurrendo subjectum temperat orbem, divina utique procurante sapientia, ut non semper eisdem commoratus in locis, fervoris ariditate mundanum depopuletur ornatum, sed paulatim per diversa commigrans, terrenis fructibus nascendis maturandisque temperamenta custodiat.

There are four seasons in the year, just as Bede says, in which the sun, by taking its course through the different regions of the sky, tempers the globe which lies beneath it, according to the universal solicitude of divine wisdom, so that not always remaining in the same place, it does not devastate Earth's lovely vesture by its devouring heat.  Rather, travelling through diverse regions by gradual stages, it preserves temperate conditions for sprouting and ripening the fruits of the earth.

A quo temperamento videtur temporibus inditum nomen, vel certe quia quadam suae similitudine qualitatis ad invicem contemperata volvuntur, tempora recte vocantur. Hiems enim, ut pote longius sole remoto, frigida est et humida. Ver, illo super terras redeunte, humidum et calidum. Aestas, illo superfervente, calida et sicca. Autumnus, illo ad inferiora decedente, siccus et frigidus; sicque fit ut amplexantibus singulis medio moderamine quae circa se sunt, orbis instar ad invicem cuncta concludantur.

The seasons [tempora] take their name from this temperateness; or else they are rightly called tempora because they turn one into the other, being tempered one to another by some qualitative likeness. For winter is cold and wet, inasmuch as the sun is quite far off; spring, when [the sun] comes back above the earth, is wet and warm; summer, when it waxes very hot, is warm and dry; autumn, when it falls to the lower regions, is dry and cold. And so it happens that with each one embracing through what is on either side of it, the whole is linked up to itself like a sphere.

Quibus aeque qualitatibus disparibus quidem per se, sed alterutra adinvicem societate connexis, ipsa quoque mundi elementa constat esse distincta. Terra namque sicca et frigida, aqua frigida et humida, aer humidus et calidus, ignis est calidus et siccus; ideoque haec autumno, illa hiemi, iste veri, ille comparatur aestati.

It is also said that the very elements of the universe are distinguished by these divergent qualities, but knit into a company with each other, but each to each. For earth is dry and cold, water cold and wet, air wet and warm, fire warm and dry, and therefore the first is likened to autumn, the next to winter, the next to spring, and the last to summer.

Sed et homo ipse, qui a sapientibus microcosmos, id est, minor mundus appellatur, iisdem per omnia qualitatibus habet temperatum corpus, imitantibus nimirum singulis iis, quibus constat humoribus, modum temporum quibus maxime pollet.

And man himself, who is called "microcosm" by the wise, that is, "a smaller universe", has his body tempered in every respect by these same qualities; indeed each of its constituent humors imitates the manner of the season in which it prevails.

Sanguis siquidem qui vere crescit, humidus et calidus. Cholera rubea, quae aestate, calida et sicca. Cholera nigra, quae autumno, sicca et frigida. Phlegmata, quae hyeme, frigida sunt et humida.

For blood, which increases in the spring, is moist and warm; red bile, which [increases in] the summer is hot and dry; black bile, which [increases in] the autumn, is dry and cold; and phlegmatic humors, which [increase in] winter, are cold and moist.

Et quidem sanguis in infantibus maxime viget, in adolescentibus cholera rubea, melancholia in transgressoribus id est, fel cum faece nigri sanguinis admixtum, phlegmata dominantur in senibus.

Indeed, blood is at its most active in children, red bile in young people, melancholia (that is, gall mingled with the dregs of black blood) in the middle-aged, and phlegmatic humors dominate in the elderly.

Item sanguis eos in quibus maxime pollet facit hilares, laetos, misericordes, multum ridentes et loquentes. Cholera vero rubea facit macilentos, multum tamen comedentes, veloces, audaces, iracundos, agiles. Nigra bilis, stabiles, graves, compositos moribus, dolososque facit. Phlegmata, tardos, somnolentos, obliviosos generant.

Moreover, blood makes those in whom its potency is greatest cheerful, joyous, tender-hearted, much given to laughter and speech; red bile makes people lean, even though they eat a lot, swift, bold, irritable and agile; black bile makes them stolid, solemn, set in their ways and gloomy; phlegmatic humors produce people who are slow, sleepy and forgetful.

Horum autem principia temporum diverse ponunt diversi. Isidorus namque Hispaniensis episcopus, hyemem IX Calendarum Decemb., ver VIII Calend. Mart., aestatem IX Calendas Junias, autumnum X Calendas Septembres habere dixit exortum. Graeci autem et Romani, quorum in hujusmodi disciplina potius quam Hispanorum auctoritas sequi consuevit, Hyemem VII Id. Novemb., ver VII Id. Februa., aestatem VII Id. Maii, Antummum VII Id. Augusti] inchoare decernunt. [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35, PL 90, col. 457-459]

However, different people place the beginnings of the seasons at different times. Bishop Isidore the Spaniard said that winter begins on the 9th kalends of December [23 November], spring on the 8th kalends of March [22 February], summer on the 9th kalends of June [24 May], and autumn on the 10th kalends of September [23 August]. But the Greeks and Romans, whose authority on these matters, rather than that of the Spaniards, it is generally preferable to follow, deem that winter begins on the 7th ides of November [7 November], spring on the 7th ides of February [7 February], summer on the 7th ides of May [9 May], and autumn on the 7th ides of August [7 August] . [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35: 391-394; translation from Wallis]

Hoc autem non ignores, quia ipsa quatuor, quae praediximus, temporum confinia, licet mensium sequentium Kalendis approximentur, unumquodque medium tamen temporum, i. e. veris et aestatis, autumni et hiemis teneat, et non exinde temporum principia inchoantur, unde mensium Calendae initiantur, sed ita, unumquodque tempus inchoandum est, ut a prima die veris temporis aequinoctium dividatur, et aestatis VIII. Kal. Junii, et autumni VIII. Kal. Octobris, et hiemis VIII. Kal. Januarii similiter dividat. [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35, col. 460A-B]

But you ought not to be unaware that although these four aforementioned boundaries of the seasons are close to the kalends of the following months, nevertheless each one contains within itself the mid-point of the seasons, that is, spring, summer, autumn and winter, and the beginnings of the seasons do not occur where the kalends of the months begin. But each season is to begin at such a point that the equinox divides the spring season [in half, beginning] from the first day; summer is similarly divided at the 8th kalends of July [24 June], autumn at the 8th kalends of October [24 September], and winter at the 8th kalends of January [25 December] . [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35: 394; translation from Wallis]

Aestas, sicut Beda dicit ab aestu vocatur, qui in ea, maturandis fructibus datur, [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35, col. 461A] sive, sicut Isidorus dicit, aestas dicitur ab aestu, i. e. a calore, et aestas quasi exusta et arida; nam calor aridus est. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.4]

Summer [aestas] , as Bede says, [takes its name] from heat [aestu] which in [summer] is bestowed for the ripening of crops [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35: 395; translation from Wallis], or, as Isidore says, summer [aestas] takes its name from aestus, that is, "heat," also aestas as if it were 'burnt' [ustus] and arid, for heat is arid. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.4; translation from Barney et al.]

<em>Aestas vero datur meridiano, [page 273] eo quod pars ejus calore flagrantior sit. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.8]

Summer [is linked] to the south, [page 273] because that part is more flaming with heat. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.8; translation from Barney et al.]

Autumnus dicitur, sicut Beda dicit, de auctumnatione fructuum, qui in eo colliguntur, [Beda, De temporum ratione, c. 35] sive auctunmus, sicut Isidorus dicit, a tempestate vocatur, quando et folia arborum cadunt et omnia maturescunt. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.5]

Autumn [is named] , as Bede said, from the increasing [autumnatione] of crops which are gathered then. [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 35: 395; translation from Wallis] Or it is called auctumnus, as Isidore says, from the season when the leaves of the trees fall and everything ripens. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.5]

Autumnus occiduo datur, propter quod et graves morbos habet, et tunc omnia folia arborum defluunt. Ut autem autumnus abundet morbis, facit et hoc confinium frigoris et caloris et compugnantia inter se contrariorum aerum. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.8]

Fall [is linked] to ruin [occiduo], because it brings serious diseases, whence also at that time all of the leaves of the trees fall. The meeting of cold and heat and the conflict between opposite kinds of air are the reason why fall abounds with diseases. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae V, c. 35.8; translation from Barney et al.]

Kalendas autem, Nonas et Idus, sicut Isidorus dicit, propter dies festos romani instituerunt, vel propter officium magistratuum. In his diebus enim conveniebatur in urbibus. Quidam autem Kalendas a colendo appellari existimant; apud veteres enim principia omnium mensium colebantur, sicut et apud Hebraeos. [Isidore, Etymologiae V, c. 33.12-13]

Moreover, as Isidore says, the Romans established the kalends, nones, and ides with reference to festival days, or with reference to the offices of their magistrates, for on those days there would be an assembly in the cities. Some people think that the kalends are from 'to worship' [colere], for among the ancients the beginnings of every month were worshipped, just as among the Hebrews. [Isidore, Etymologiae V, c. 33.12-13; translation from Barney et al.]

Beda vero de calendis et nonis et idibus dicit hoc modo: Priscis temporibus [inserted from PL: pontifici minori haec providentia delegabatur, ut novae lunae primum observaret aspectum, visumque regi sacrificulo nunciaret.

But concerning the kalends and nones and ides, Bede speaks in this way: In olden times, the responsibility for observing the first appearance of the new moon and of announcing its sighting to the royal sacrificing-priest was delegated to a minor priest.

Itaque sacrificio a rege et minore pontifice celebrato, idem pontifex calata, id est, vocata in Capitolium plebe, juxta curiam Calabram, quae casae Romuli proxima est, quot numero dies a Calendis ad Nonas superessent, pronunciabat, et quintanas quidem dicto quinquies verbo καλῶ septimanas repetito septies praedicabat.

Then, after a sacrifice had been offered by the priest-king and the minor priest, and the people summoned [kalata], that is, called [vocata] to the Capitoline Hill at the Curia Calabra, next to the house of Romulus, the minor priest announced the number of days from kalends until nones. He proclaimed "quintanas" [i.e. that five days remained] by saying “kalo" five times, and "septimanas" [i.e., that seven days remained] by repeating it seven times.

Verbum autem καλῶ Graecum est, id est, voco; et hunc diem qui ex his diebus qui calarentur primus esset, placuit Calendas vocari; hinc et ipsi curiae ad quam vocabantur Calabrae nomen datum est, et classi, quod omnis in eam vocaretur populus.

The word kalo is Greek and means "I call", so it seemed good to name the day which was the first of those called out the kalends. Hence the same name, Calabra, was given both to the court where they were announced and to the assembly, because the whole populace was called to it.

Ideo autem minor pontifex numerum dierum qui ad Nonas superessent calando prodebat, quod post novam lunam oportebat Nonarum die populares, qui in agris essent, confluere in urbem, accepturos causas feriarum a rege sacrorum, sciturosque quid esset eo mense faciendum.

em>Thus the minor priest announced the number of days until the nones by calling [kalando], for the populace who worked out in the fields had to gather in the town on the ninth day after the new moon to receive from the priest-king occasion for a holiday, and to learn from the priests what ought to be done during that month.

Unde quidam hinc Nonas existimant dictas, quasi novae initium observationis, vel quod ab eo die semper ad Idus novem dies putarentur. Porro Idus vocari placuit diem, qui dividit mensem. Iduare enim Etrusca lingua dividere est; unde vidua, quasi valde idua, id est, valde divisa; aut vidua, id est, a viro divisa. Nonnullis placet Idus dictas vocabulo Graeco, a specie; quae apud illos εἰδέα vocatur, quod ea die plenam speciem luna demonstret.

Hence some people think they were called nones because it was the beginning of a new [nova] observance or because nine [nouem] days were always counted from that day until the ides. Now it pleased them to call the day which divided the month the ides, for in the Etruscan language iduare means "to divide". Hence a uidua [widow] is, as it were, truly idua, that is, truly divided, or else uidua means "a uiro diuisa" [i.e. divided from a man]. Some prefer to think that ides comes from the Greek word for face, which they call idea, because on that day the moon shows its full face.

Notandum autem quod in Scriptura sacra Calendas cum legimus, nihil aliud quam novae ortum lunae intelligere debemus, juxta illud Numerorum: In Calendis autem, id est, in mensium exordiis, offeretis holocausta Domino. Quia nimirum Hebraei, ut supra dictum est, non alia mensium exordia quam Neomenias, id est]novilunia norunt. [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 13, PL 90, col. 352D-354A]

Notice that when we read of the kalends in Holy Scripture, we should take it simply to mean the appearance of the new moon, as in the book of Numbers: For at the kalends, that is, at the beginning of the months, you will make burnt offerings to the Lord. For as we mentioned above, the Hebrews knew no other beginning of the month save the new moon. [Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 13, mostly following Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.15.9-13 (70.27-71.24), 16-17 (72.7-18); translation from Wallis]

Videndum est, quot modis vocabula mensium constant, et unde originem sumserunt. Quatuor ergo modis, sicut Beda dicit, menses nominantur, h.e. sub idolis, sub rebus, sub regibus, sub numeris. Januarius enim duobus modis nomen accepit, h.e. ex idolo et re; ex idolo ergo, h.e. ex Jano bifronte, simulacro videlicet Jani, Epirotarum regis, qui argumento excogitato semetipsum igni tradidit et ex hoc romanis victoriam peperit.

It must be seen in how many ways the words of the months agree and whence they obtained their origin. Therefore, in four ways, as Bede says, the months are named, that is, from idols, from things, from kings, and from numbers. For January receives its name by two ways, this is, from an idol and a thing; from the idol, then two-faced Janus, that is the image of Janus, king of the Epirotes, who having thought through the evidence tossed himself into fire and from this procured victory for the Romans.

Bifrons autem Jani simulacrum erat, quod ex una parte viri, ex altera feminae adorabant, indeque Januarium vocaverunt bicipitis Dei mensem, respicientem transacti anni finem ac prospicientem futuri anni principium.

The image of Janus was two-faced because men used to worship from one side and women from the other. Thenceforth they called January the month of the bi-headed god, who looked back at the end of the last year and forward to the beginning of the next..

Item Januarius ex re dicitur, eo quod sit janua anni, h. e. principium.

Likewise, January is so called on this account, because it is the door [ianua] of the year, this is, the beginning.

Similiter Februarius dicitur ab idolo et re; ab idolo ergo Februo, h.e. Plutone, qui lustrationum potens esse credebatur a gentilibus, Februarius [page 274] est nominatus; lustrari enim eo mense civitatem Romam necesse erat, quo statuta jussa, h.e. sacrificia das manibus solverent; sive Februarius dictus est a febre, h.e. a frigore propter frigidum tempus ipsius mensis.

Likewise February is called from a idol and a thing. February is named, therefore, from the idol Februa, that is, Pluto, who was believed by pagans to be the master of purification sacrifice. [page 274] For in that month it was necessary that the city of Rome be purified, which had been established by decree, this is, the sacrifices release the shades of the dead. Or February is so called from fever [febre], that is, from a chill on account of the cold weather of the same month.

Martius autem dictus est a Marte idolo, qui pater Romuli et romanae gentis auctor esse aestimabatur, sive a re, h.e. a maribus nomen Martius accepit; nam et eo tempore cuncta animantia terrae mares desiderant ad concumbendi voluptatem.

March, however, is so called from the idol Mars, who was considered to be the father of Romulus and the founder of the Roman race, or from a thing, that is, it receives its name Mars from men [maribus]. For at that time men of the earth desire all living things of the earth for the pleasure of sexual intercourse.

Dicitur enim Aprilis duobus modis, sub idolo, i.e. Venere, matre, ut ferunt, Aeneae; afros enim graece spuma interpretatur, unde Venus orta credita est, quae africalis sive afronia apud graecos nominatur; et sub re, h. e. ab aperiendo quasi aperilis, in eo enim mense remotis nubibus, pruinis ac tempestatibus hibernis coelum, terra, mare nautis, agricolis et horoscopis aperitur; arbores quoque et herbae, sed et animantia quaeque in prolem se aperire incipiunt.

But April is so called for two reasons. [First, it is] for the goddess, that is Venus, the mother of Aeneas, as they say; afros is Greek for foam. Hence Venus is believed to have been born from that which is called africalis or afronia among the Greeks.¹ [Secondly] as thing it is from opening [aperiendo] as in aprilis [capable of being opened], for in that month, once clouds, frosts, and winter storms are moved away, the sky, earth, and sea are opened to sailors, farmers, and horoscopes. Likewise trees and plants and even animals begin to open themselves in offspring.

Maius duobus modis dicitur, h.e. sub idolo Maio, quem Jovem esse voluerunt quasi majestate praecipuum, sive a Maia, Mercurii matre; et sub re, h.e. a majoribus romanorum, quem Romulo ita vocari placuit.

May is named in two means, that is, for the God Maio, whom they wished Jupiter to be as if chief in majesty, or from Maia, the mother of Mercury, and from this thing: the elders of the Romans, whom it pleased Romulus to call.

Junius a Junone, filia Saturni, sorore Jovis, sive a junioribus romanorum, qui armis defendebant rem publicam.

June is from Juno, daughter of Saturn, sister of Jupiter, or from the more recent Romans, who defended the republic with arms.

Julius a Julio Caesare, quia in IV. idus Julii mensis creatus Gajus Julius Caesar, qui primus arripuit imperium apud romanos; nam antea, a Martio mense numeratus, Quintilis a numero sortitus est nomen.

July is from Julius Caesar, because on the ninth ides of July, Gaius Julius Caesar, who first seized imperial power among the Romans, was born. For before, counting from the month of March, the name was Quintilis [fifth] chosen from the number.

Augustus namque ab Octaviano Caesare Augusto nomen accepit, qui in Calendis istius mensis Antonium et Cleopatram vicit et Imperium populi romani firmavit. Cum autem Augusti nomen ille inde assumserit, ex senatus consulto mensem ob memoriam sui nomen hoc habere voluit.

August indeed receives its name from Octavian Caesar Augustus, who in the kalends of this month conquered Antony and Cleopatra and fortified his command of the Roman people. When, however, he had thenceforth adopted that name of Augustus, he wished the month to have this name in his memory by senatorial decree.

September vocatur a numero, eo quod sit septimus imber a Martio.

September is called from the number, because it is the seventh storm [septimus imber] from March.

Octobrem ergo, Novembrem et Decembrem a numero quippe similitatem, et ab imbre nomen sumserunt, quia his temporibus imbres terrae imminent. [Hrabanus Maurus, Liber de computo, c. 33, PL 107, col. 685C-686B; cf. Bede, De temporum ratione, XII, passim and Isidore, Eytmologiae, V, 33: 3-11] [page 275]

Therefore, October, November, and December obviously are similarly from the number and “storm” because at these times storms loom over the earth. [Hrabanus Maurus, Liber de computo, c. 33, PL 107, col 685C-686B; cf. Bede, De temporum ratione, XII, passim and Isidore, Etymologiae, V, 33; 3-11] [page 275]

Pascha antiquitus ecclesia [omitted in Mittermüller, inserted from ed. Lindsay: quarta decima luna cum Judaeis celebrabat, quocunque die occurreret.

[omitted in Mittermüller, inserted from ed. Lindsay]: In ancient times the Church celebrated the paschal season with the Jews on the fourteenth day of the moon, on whatever day of the week it fell.

Quem ritum sancti Patres in Nicaena synodo prohibuerunt, constituentes non solum lunam paschalem et mensem inquirere, sed etiam et diem resurrectionis Dominicae observare; et ob hoc pascha a quarta decima luna usque ad vicesimam primam extenderunt, ut dies Dominicus non omitteretur.

The holy Fathers prohibited this celebration at the Nicene synod, legislating that one should seek out not only the paschal moon and month, but also should observe the day of the Lord's resurrection; and because of this they extended the paschal season from the fourteenth day of the moon to the twenty-first day, so that Sunday would not be passed over.

(11) Paschae autem vocabulum non Graecum, sed Hebraeum est; nec a passione, quoniam πάσχειν Graece dicitur pati, sed a transitu Hebraeo verbo pascha appellata est, eo quod tunc populus Dei ex Aegypto transierit. Unde et in Evangelio: Cum vidisset, inquit, Jesus, quia venit hora ut transiret de mundo ad Patrem. [Io 13:1]

(11) The term pasch [pascha, i.e. Easter Day] is not Greek but Hebrew, and it derives not from suffering -- for πάσχειν in Greek means suffer -- but from the Hebrew word pasch, meaning passover [transitus], because at that time the people of God passed over [transierunt] from Egypt. Whence the Gospel [Io 13:1] says, "Jesus knowing that his hour was come, that he should pass out [transiret] of this world to the Father."

(12) Cujus nox ideo pervigil ducitur, propter adventum regis ac Dei nostri, ut tempus resurrectionis ejus nos non dormientes, sed vigilantes inveniat. Cujus noctis duplex ratio est: sive quod in ea vitam tunc receipt, cum passus est; sive quod postea eadem hora, qua resurrexit ad judicandum venturus est.

(12) Easter Eve is held as a continuous vigil because of the coming of our king and God, so that the time of his resurrection might find us not sleeping but vigilant. The reason for this night's vigil is twofold: it is because on that night he then received life, although he suffered death, and because at the same hour at which he was resurrected he will afterwards come for the Judgment.

(13) Eo autem modo agimus pascha, ut non solum mortem et resurrectionem Christi in memoriam revocemus, sed etiam caetera, quae circa eum attestantur, ad sacramentorum significationem inspiciamus.

(13) Moreover we celebrate Easter Day in that manner not only to call to mind the death and resurrection of Christ, but also to ponder the other things that are attested concerning him, with regard to the meaning of the sacraments.

(14) Propter initium enim novae vitae et propter novum hominem, quem jubemur induere, et exuere veterem, expurgantes vetus fermentum, ut simus nova conspersio, quoniam pascha nostrum immolatus est Christus. Propter hanc ergo vitae novitatem primus mensis novorum in mensibus anni celebrationi paschali mystice attributus est.

(14) This is for the sake of the beginning of a new life and for the sake of the new person whom we are commanded to put on, taking off the old, purging out "the old leaven" that we may be "a new dough ... for Christ our pasch is sacrificed" [I Cor 5:7]. Therefore because of this newness of life the first month of the new things [i.e., the new crops; see Ex 23:15 etc.] in the months of the year is mystically attributed to the paschal celebration.

(15) Quod vero tertiae hebdomadae die pascha celebratur, id est qui dies occurrit a quarta decima in vicesimam primam, hoc significat quia in toto tempore saeculi, quod septenario dierum numero agitur, nunc tertium tempus hoc sacramentum aperuit.

(15) Indeed, that Easter Day is celebrated on a day of the third week - that is on a day that falls from the fourteenth to the twenty-first - signifies that in the whole time of the world, which is accomplished in seven periods of days, this holy event has now opened up the third age.

(16) Primum enim tempus est ante legem, secundum sub lege, tertium sub gratia; ubi jam manifestatum est sacramentum prius occultum in prophetico aenigmate; ideo et propter haec tria saeculi tempora resurrectio Domini triduana est.

(16) For the first age is before the [Mosaic] law, the second under the law, and the third under grace; where the sacrament is now manifest, formerly it was hidden in prophetic enigma. It is also because of these three ages of the world that the resurrection of the Lord is on the third day.

(17) Quod vero a quarta decima luna usque ad vicesimam primam per dies septem paschalis dies quaeritur, propter ipsum numerum septenarium, quo universitatis significatio saepe figuratur; qui etiam ipsi Ecclesiae tribuitur propter instar universitatis, unde et Joannes apostolus, in Apocalypsin ad septem scribit ecclesias.

(17) That we find Easter Day among the seven days from the fourteenth to the twenty-first of the new moon is because of that number seven, by which a meaning of wholeness is often figured. That number is even given to the Church itself because of its image of wholeness, whence the apostle John in the Apocalypse writes to seven churches.

(18) Ecclesia vero adhuc in ista mortalitate carnis constituta propter ipsam mutabilitatem, lunae nomine] in scripturis significatur. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI, c. 17.10-18]

(18) But the Church, still set in that mortality of the flesh, because of its own mutability is designated by the name of the moon in Scripture. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI, c. 17.10-18; translation from Barney et al.]

Constitutum est enim: primi mensis initium ab octavo iduum Martiarum usque in nonas Aprilis observare debemus, et si quinta decima luna die dominico incurrerit, sanctum pascha celebrare necesse est. [cf. Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 51]

For it is established: we ought to observe the beginning of the first month from the eighth ides of March up to the nones of April and if a five-tenths moon occurs on the Lord's day, it is necessary to celebrate holy Easter. [cf. Bede, De temporum ratione, c. 51]

Psalmistae a psalmis canendis vocati sunt. Isti enim canunt, ut excitent ad compunctionem animos audientium, licet et quidam lectores ita miseranter pronuntient, ut quosdam ad luctum lamentationemque compellant. Idem etiam pronuntiatores vocantur, quod porro annuntiant; tanta enim et tam clara erit eorum vox, ut quamvis longe positorum aures adimpleant.

Psalmists [psalmista] are so called from singing psalms. They sing to kindle the spirits of their audiences to compunction - although some readers also declaim in so heart-rending a way that they drive some people to sorrow and lamentation. These same people are also called announcers [pronuntiatores] because they announce from far away [porro adnuntiare]; their voice will be so loud and clear that they fill the ears even of those placed far away.

Cantor autem est vocatus, quia vocem modulatur in cantu.

Further, a chanter [cantor] is so called because he modulates his voice in singing [cantus].

Hujus duo genera dicuntur in arte musica, sicut ea docti homines latine dicere potuerunt, praecentor et succentor; praecentor scilicet, qui vocem praemittit in cantu, succentor autem, qui subsequenter canendo respondet.

There are said to be two types of chanter in the art of music, corresponding with the names learned people have been able to give them in Latin: the precentor [praecentor] and the succentor [succentor]. The precentor is so called, naturally, because he leads the singing; the succentor because he follows in response.

Concentor autem dicitur, qui consonat; qui autem non consonat, nec concinit, nec concentor erit. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VII, c. 12.24-27]

He who chants in harmony [consonat] is called the concentor; he who not chant in harmony does not sing and will not be a concentor [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VII, c. 12.24-27; translation from Barney et al.]

Psalterium, quod vulgo canticum dicitur, a psallendo nominatum, quod ad ejus vocem chorus consonando respondeat. Est autem similitudo cytharae barbaricae in modum. (Deltae) litterae, sed psalterii et cytharae haec differentia est, quod psalterium lignum illud concavum, unde sonum reddit, superius habet, et deorsum feriuntur chordae et desuper sonant; cythara vero concavitatem ligni inferius habet. Psalterio vero Hebraei decachordo usi sunt propter numerum decalogum legis. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae III. c. 22.7]

The psaltery [psalterium], which is commonly called canticum, takes its name from 'singing to the psaltery' [psallere], because the chorus responds in harmony to the voice of the psaltery. It has a characteristic shared with the foreign cithara, being in the shape of the letter d; but there is this difference between the psaltery and the cithara:, the psaltery has a hollowed wooden box from which the sound resonates on its top side, so that the strings are struck from underneath and resonate from above, but the cithara has its wooden sound-box on the bottom. The Hebrews used the ten-string psaltery on account of the number of laws of the Decalogue. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae III. c. 22.7; translation from Barney et al.]

Psalmus autem dicitur [omitted in Mittermüller, inserted from ed. Lindsay: qui cantatur ad psalterium, quo usum esse David prophetam in magno mysterio prodit historia.

A psalm [psalmus] is the name for what is sung to the psaltery [psalterium]. History records that the prophet David played this instrument, in a great mystery.

Haec autem duo in quibusdam psalmorum titulis juxta musicam artem alternatim sibi adponuntur. Nam canticum Psalmi est, cum id quod organum modulatur, vox postea cantantis eloquitur.

These two terms are used together in certain titles of psalms, with their order alternating depending on the musical technique. Thus a 'canticle of a psalm' occurs when what a musical instrument plays, the voice of the singer afterwards sounds.

(12) Psalmus vero cantici, cum quod humana vox praeloquitur, ars organi modulantis imitatur. Psalmus autem a psalterio dicitur, unde nec mos est ex alio opere eum componi.

(12) But a 'psalm of a canticle' is when the art of the instrument playing imitates what the human voice sounds first. Psalm is named from the psaltery, whence the custom is for it not to be accompanied by any other kind of playing.

(13) Tres autem gradus sunt in cantando: primus succentoris, secundus incentoris,] tertius accentoris. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI. c. 19:11-13] [page 276]

(13) There are moreover three ranges in singing: first the succentor’s, second the incentor’s, and the third the accentor’s. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI. c. 19:11-13; translation from Barney et al.] [page 276]

Psalmorum liber graece [omitted in Mittermüller, inserted from ed. Lindsay: Hebraice nabla, Latine organum dicitur. Vocatus autem Psalmorum [liber] quod, uno propheta canente ad psalterium, chorus consonando responderet. Titulus autem in Psalmis Hebraicus ita est, Sepher Thehilim, quod interpretatur volumen hymnorum.

The book of Psalms is called in Greek the psalter [psalterium], in Hebrew nabla, and in Latin organum. It is called the book of Psalms because one prophet would sing to a psaltery and the chorus would respond in harmony. Moreover the Hebrew title heading the psalms is this: Sepher Thehilim, which means scroll of hymns.

Auctores autem psalmorum qui ponuntur in titulis: Moyses scilicet et David et Salomon, Asaph, Ethan, Idithun et filii Core, Eman, Ezraithae et reliquorum, quos Esdras uno volumine comprehendit.

The authors of the psalms are those whose names are given in the titles, namely Moses, David, Solomon, Asaph, Ethan, Idithun, the sons of Core, Eman, Ezraitha and the rest, whom Ezra gathered into the one scroll.

Omnes autem psalmos apud Hebraeos metrico carmine constat esse compositi. Nam in morem Romani Flacci, et Graeci Pindari, nunc alii iambo currunt, nunc Alcaico personant, nunc Saphico nitent, trimetro, vel tetrametro] pede incedentes. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI, c. 2.15-17]

Furthermore, all the psalms of the Hebrews are known to have been composed in lyric meter; in the manner of the Roman Horace and the Greek Pindar they run first on iambic foot, then they resound in alcaic, then they glitter in Sapphic measure, proceeding on trimeter or tetrameter feet. [Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae VI, c. 2.15-17; translation from Barney et al.]

Dicit enim Cassiodorus in primo psalmo Psalmus est hymnus alicujus metri lege compositus, qui ad similitudinem praedicti organi supernam nobis cognoscitur indicare virtutem. [Cassiodorus, Expositio Psalmorum II, c. 1, CCSL 97, p. 40]

For Cassiodorus says on the first psalm: A psalm is a hymn composed by the law of any meter, which in the same way as the instrument previously mentioned is recognized by us to reveal virtue. [Cassiodorus, Expositio Psalmorum II, c. 1, CCSL 97, p. 40]

Forte dicit aliquis: 'Quare S. Benedictus annum in duas partes divisit, in hiemem et aestatem, cum in quatuor partes annus dividitur, i. e. in hiemem et ver, aestatem scilicet et autumnum?' Dicit enim: ₁hiemis tempore a Calendis Novembris usque ad pascha, et a pascha usque ad praedictas Calendas Novembris.

Someone perhaps says: "Why does Saint Benedict divide the year into two parts, into winter and summer, when the year is divided into four parts, that is into winter and of course spring, summer and autumn?" For he says: ₁In winter time from the kalends of November up to Easter and ₄from Easter up to the aforementioned kalends of November.

Cui respondendum est: Quamvis enim antiqui non in duas solummodo partes annum divisissent, tamen S. Benedictus quadam ratione discretionis hoc facere studuit; neque enim aliter poterat facere, qui legem bene vivendi describebat, qui mores hominum docere studuit, nisi tali modo hanc legem describeret, ut annum in duas partes divisisset.

To him it must be replied that although the ancients had not divided the year into only two parts, nevertheless Saint Benedict strove to do this with a certain reason of distinction; for he who described the law of living well and strove to teach customs to men,was not able to do otherwise unless he described this law in such a manner that he had divided the year into two parts.

Et non solum de anno fecit hoc, i. e. in duas partes divisit contra consuetudinem aliorum, qui annum in quatuor partes dividunt, verum etiam et de horis et scripturis similiter fecit propter rationem discretionis, necnon et confirmandi gratia ea, quae dicebat, v. gr. in hiemis tempore fecit de horis, cum hora secunda agatur tertia [Regula Benedicti, c. 48.11] dixit, et in aestivo tempore: agatur nona temperius mediante octava hora et reliq. [Regula Benedicti, c. 48.6]

And he did this not only concerning the year, that is, divided it into two parts contrary to the custom of others, who divide the year into four parts, but he even did this similarly concerning the hours and the scriptures on account of reason of distinction and also to confirm these things he said; for example, he did so concerning the hours in winter time when he said Terce should be done at the second hour [Regula Benedicti, c. 48.11] and in the summer time Nones should be done a little early, at the middle of the eighth hour and so forth. [Regula Benedicti, c. 48.6]

De scripturis vero fecit, cum plurima exempla aliter intellexit, quae hic adhibuit. Non enim ita dico 'aliter intellexit', ut nequaquam etiam intellexisset illa secundum proprium sensum divinarum scripturarum.

But concerning the scriptures, he did what he did here although he understood many examples otherwise. For I do not say "he understood otherwise" to mean that he had not at all understood these matters according to the his interpretation of the holy scriptures.

Ille enim doctus Spiritu Sancto quia intellexit secundum proprium sensum divinarum scripturarum, credo, sed causa firmandi ea, quae dicebat, illa exempla ad alium sensum retorsit.

For taught by the Holy Spirit, because he understood according to the his own interpretatinon of the holy scriptures, I believe; but for the sake of strengthening these words, which he said, he turned these examples to another meaning.

V. gr. cum de taciturnitate dixit, posuit ibi exemplum: Dixi, custodiam vias meas, ut non deliquam in lingua mea; posui ori meo custodiam; obmutui et humiliatus sum et silui a bonis; [Ps 38:2-3] [Regula Benedicti, c. 6.1] et iterum: Hilarem datorem diligit Deus [2 Cor 9:7] [Regula Benedicti, c. 5.16] et reliq., quae qualiter intellexit, superius jam dictum est, et qualiter [page 277] sensus proprius est illarum.

For instance, when he spoke about silence, he put an example there: I said, I keep my ways safe, so that I may not transgress with my words; I put safe-keeping on my mouth; I was speechless, humbled and silent about good things. [Ps 38:2-3] [Regula Benedicti, c. 6.1] And again: God loves a cheerful giver [2 Cor 9:7] [Regula Benedicti, c. 5.16] and so forth, which he understood just as was said just above and according to [page 277] his own interpretation of those words.

Et hoc notandum est, quia nil nocet, divinum scripturam alio sensu intelligere, quam suus proprius est, sed solummodo in pejorem sensum non debet quis ejus sensum derivare, sicuti est in haeresin aut in pravos mores. B. vero Benedictum in bonum illum derivasse, omnino credendum est.

And this must be noted that it does no harm to understand the divine scripture in another sense than his own, only he who derives his own meaning only must not derive a worse one, as in heresy or evil customs. But It must be entirely believed that blessed Benedict derived a good meaning.

Sequitur: ₁Hiemis tempore, i. e. a Calendis Novembris usque in Pascha juxta considerationem rationis octava hora noctis surgendum est, ₂ut modice amplius de media nocte pausetur et jam digesti surgant.

He continues: ₁In the winter time, that is, from the kalends of November up to Easter, according to the consideration of reason they must rise at the eighth hour of the night, ₂so that after resting a little past midnight, they rise already having completed digestion.

Cum enim dicit a Calendis Novembris, et dixit ante hiemis tempore, non est intelligendum, ut solummodo sic incipiat tempus hiemis, cum hiems post incipiat, sicut supra dictum est, sed causa discretionis, quia diviserat annum in duas partes, sicut dixi, a majore parte nominavit hiems, qui totam hiemem inclusit in hoc spatio et aliquid de autumno ceperat.

For when he says from the kalends of November, and said before in the winter time, it must not be understood that winter time begins only, when winter begins, just as is said above, but because of discretion, for he divided the year into two parts, just as I said, and he called it "winter" from the longer part [of the year], which included the whole winter and took in some of autumn.

Et vere mos est divinarum scripturarum, majorem partem superare minorem.

And truly the custom of holy scripture is that the larger part surpasses the smaller.

Similiter et, aestatem cum dixit, fecit. Hoc etiam notandum est, quantum ad officium attinet, ratio et mos est scripturae divinae, si Calendae Novembris fuerint die dominico, incipiendum est hoc agere, quod dixit, in die dominica

He did likewise when he said summer. Indeed it must be noted, insofar as it pertains to the Office, that it is the reason and custom of the divine scriptures if the kalends of November will be on a Sunday, what he said must be begun to be done on the Sunday.

Similiter si secunda feria venerint Calendae et tertia feria atque quarta feria, semper a dominica praeterita incipiendum est; si vero quinta feria fuerint Calendae Novembris vel sexta feria vel Sabbatho, non praeterita dominica, sed ab illa dominica, quae sequitur, incipiendum est; sic enim ecclesia romana facit, cum libros ad legendum ponit; dicit enim: In Calendis Augusti ponendus est liber Salomonis.

Similarly, if the kalends will come on Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday, it must always be begun on the preceding Sunday. But if the kalends are on Thursday, Friday, or Saturday, then it must not be begun on the preceding Sunday but on that Sunday which follows. For the Roman church does it thus when it ordains the books to be read. For it says: the book of Solomon is placed on the kalends of August.

Non in Calendis solummodo ponunt, sicut dixi, sed in die dominica aut ante Calendas aut post Calendas, sed tali ordine, sicut dixi, i. e. si usque ad quartam feriam venerint Calendae, ponunt in praeterita dominica, si autem post quartam feriam fuerint Calendae, i. e. quinta feria et sexta aut sabbatho, ponunt in dominica sequenti.

Not only do they place it on the kalends, just as I said, but on the Sunday either before or after the kalends, but in such order as I just said, that is, if the kalends come up on Wednesday, they place it on the preceding Sunday. If, however, the kalends are after Wednesday, that is, on Thursday, Friday, or Saturday, they place it on the following Sunday.

Sequitur: ₂Juxta considerationem rationis octava hora noctis surgendum est.

He continues: reason dictates that [monks] should rise at the eighth hour of the night.

Quid est: octava hora surgendum est? - ac si diceret: ‘nec ante octavam horam, nec post [page 278] octavam, sed in ipsa hora octava surgendum est’, v. gr. sicuti hic depictum est.

What is: monks should rise at the eighth hour of the night? It is as if he said: "neither before the eighth hour, nor after [page 278] the eighth hour, but [monks] should rise at the eighth hour," for example, as it is thus depicted.

Hoc notandum est, quia illa spatia sunt horae; nam virgae non sunt horae, sed fines horarum.²

It must be noted that because those spaces are hours, for the lines are not hours, but the ends of the hours.

Qui haec rationabiliter vult facere, horologium aquae illi necessarium est. In hoc loco forte quaerit aliquis, quare B. Benedictus dixit: octava hora noctis surgendum est, cum December et Januarius menses in nocte habent horas XVIII et in die VI?

He who wishes to do this rationally needs a water clock. In this place perhaps someone asks why blessed Benedict said monks should rise at the eighth hour of the night, when the months of December and January have eighteen hours of night and six of day. He seems to speak awkwardly and contradict himself, since the eighth hour of night is sometimes less than the middle of the night and sometimes only just the middle of the night.

Dure videtur dicere, et contrarius est sibimet, cum hora noctis octava aliquando est minus de media nocte, aliquando etiam solummodo media nox. Cui respondendum est: nec dure dixit, nec sibi etiam contrarius est, quia, quamvis ipsa octava aliquando existit ante mediam noctem, sicut diximus, aliquando in ipsa media nocte, tamen aequinoctium custodivit, quod aequaliter habet in die et nocte horas, i. e. XII in die, et XII in nocte, et juxta ejus rationem aequinoctii dixit in nocte horas XII et in die, maxime cum Dominus dicat: Nonne duodecim horae sunt diei? [Ioh. 11:9]

The response must be: he does not speak awkwardly or even contradict himself because although the eighth hour itself sometimes occurs before the middle of the night, just as we have said, and sometimes in the middle of the night itself, nevertheless, he kept the equinox because he has the hours equally in the day and night, that is, twelve in the day and twelve in the night. And according to his calculation of the equinox he said twelve hours in the night and in the day, especially when the Lord would say: Does the day not have twelve hours? [Io 11:9]

Cum enim dicit et jam, non est una pars orationis, sed duae, h. e. conjunctio copulativa, quae est et, et adverbium temporis; et jam digesti, i. e. decoctis cibis. Sciendum est, quia istud digesti ad cibum attinet, i. e. ad decoctionem ciborum, et per decoctionem ciborum attinet ad sufficientem refectionem somni, quia, sicut dicunt multi, tamdiu non reficitur homo [page 279] somno, quamdiu non digeritur cibus. At ubi digestus fuerit cibus, tunc est refectio somni, et ipsa digestio non fit plena ante mediana noctem.

For when he said and already, it is not one part of the sentence, but two, that is, a copulative conjunction, which is and and a temporal adverb; and already digested, that is, the cooked food. It should be known, because that digested pertains to food, that is, to the boiling down of food, and through the boiling down of food it pertains to sufficient refreshment of sleep, because, as many say, as long as a man is not refreshed by [page 279] sleep, he will not digest food. But when food will have been digested, then there is refreshment in sleep and digestion itself is not completed before the middle of the night.

Sequitur: ₃Quod vero restat post vigilias, a fratribus, qui psalterii vel lectionum aliquid indigent, meditationi inserviatur. ₄A Pascha vero usque ad supra praedictas Calendas Novembris sic temperetur hora vigiliarum agenda, ut parvissimo intervallo, quo fratres ad necessaria naturae exeant custodito, mox matutini, qui incipiente luce agendi sunt, subsequantur.

He continues: ₃The time remaining after Vigils should be for study of the psalter and readings by brothers who need it. ₄From Easter to the abovementioned first of November, the schedule should be regulated so that, Vigils complete, there is a very brief break during which the brothers may go out for the necessities of nature, then Matins follows immediately, at first light.

In hoc loco quod dicitur quod, subaudiendum est: spatium, tempus, ac si diceret: istud spatium, quod post vigilias restat usque mane, inserviatur, i. e. praeoccupetur a fratribus; a quibus fratribus? i. e. ab illis, qui indigent aliquid psalterii vel lectionum, occupetur istud intervallum, quod restat post vigilias.

In this place where which is said it must be understood to be a period, a time, as if he said: "That period, which remains after Vigils up to morning should be used", that is, spent by the brothers. By which brothers? That is, by those who need something of the psalter and readings, that interval which remains after Vigils is occupied.

Forte dicit aliquis monachus: 'Nolo vigilare usque mane, sed dormire, eo quod non indigeo aliquid adjuvante Domino.' Cui abbas talem propositionem debet proponere, quam ille frater non possit solvere, ut humilietur ex hoc ille frater, et pro hac ratione debet abbas sapiens et doctus esse, ut possit suos monachos pleniter docere.

Perhaps some monk says: "I do not wish to keep Vigils until morning, but to sleep, because with the help of the Lord I do not need anything." The abbot ought to set for him a proposition of the sort that brother is not able to solve, in order that the brother may be humbled by it, and for this reason the abbot ought to wise and learned, in order that he can teach his monks fully.

Cum dicit custodito, subaudiendum est: intervallo vel spatio. Mox, i. e. statim matutini subsequantur, qui incipiente luce agendi sunt. In hoc loco manifestat B. Benedictus, cum dicit matutini luce incipiente agendi sunt, quia omni tempore, i. e. tam in quotidianis diebus, quam in dominicis et festis diebus matutini luce incipiente agendi sunt; nam si aliter fuerit actum illud matutinum ante inceptionem lucis, negligentia jam erit.

When he [Benedict] says regulated, it must be understood to be an interval or period. Immediately, that is, at once Matins follows, which is done at first light. In this place, blessed Benedict shows clearly, when he says that Matins follows immediately, at first light, because at every moment, that is, as much on weekdays as on Sundays and feast days, Matins follows immediately at first light; for if it were otherwise, to do that Matins before the first light would be negligent.

Notandum est enim, quare dixit a Calendis Novembris, cum hiems non inchoatur a Calendis Novembris, sed ab octavo Calendarum Decembrium?

For it must be noted, why did he say from the kalends of November, when winter is not begun at the kalends of November, but by the octave of the kalends of December?

Ideo dixit a Calendis, quia propter septem dies hiemis in Novembri mense voluit contineri totum mensem, i. e. a parte totum. Quod autem dicit octava hora noctis surgendum est, dubium est, utrum inchoante octava, an media, an prope finem ipsius horae octavae surgendum est.

Again, he said from the kalends because, on account of the seven days of winter in the month of November, he wished to include the whole month, that is, a whole from a part. However, what he says -- monks should rise at the eighth hour of the night -- creates doubt about whether a monk must rise at the beginning, middle or near the end of this same eighth hour.

Sed ista potest esse discretio, ut quanto plus sunt majores noctes, tantum plus prope initium [page 280] octavae horae surgendum est; quantum autem minores sunt noctes, tan tum prope finem ipsius horae debet signum tangi. Ora finium per o, hora dierum per h scribendum est.

But there can be discretion so that however much longer the long nights are, that much closer is the beginning [page 280] of the eighth hour the monk should rise; however shorter the nights are, so much nearer the end of the same hour the signal ought to be struck. The limit [ora] of boundaries is written with an 'o'; the hour [hora] of day is written with an 'h'.